FOUNDATION FOR ALTERNATIVE ENERGY - SLOVAKIA
POSSIBILITIES OF DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVAK ENERGY SECTOR by Emil Bedi
1 9 9 6
The study outlines energy situation in Slovakia and presents viable options for its future development. Improving efficiency of power generation in Vojany and Novaky power plants, utilisation of combined heat and power production and renewable energy sources are the cornerstones of this development. Comparison of cost-effectiveness for various options and benefits related to sustainable energy path are also presented.
The Swedish NGO Secretariat on Acid Rain
Bratislava , November 1996
Change of centralized economy to market oriented one caused painful problems in Slovakia. High unemployment rate (12%) and decline of life standard are problems of the highest priority for most of slovak population leaving the discussion about energy issues nearly untouched.
Slovak energy sector is facing some pressing problems like high dependence on imported fuels coming mostly from Russian federation. This dependence reached 89,1% in 1994 and in monetary terms it represents almost 25% of state annual budget. From macro-economical point of view this dependence is the main factor of rising Slovak trade deficit.
Another energy related problems are connected to Gabcikovo hydro power plant and nuclear power plants in Jaslovske Bohunice and Mochovce. These problems became also international ones when the discussion concentrated on environmental and safety issues. All projects have been criticised by neighbouring countries (Hungary and Austria) and environmental groups. Despite this pressure nuclear energy is still considered by Slovak decision makers as the cornerstone of future energy policy.
Gabcikovo dam has been completed and the problem between Slovakia and Hungary (opposing the project from environmental reasons) was shifted to international court in den Haag . The question to be solved is how much water should be fed into the old Danube river bed which is the natural border between these countries. Due to the Gabcikovo dam 90% of the water is continuously redirected to the Slovak territory. This hydro power plant supplies 10% of Slovak annual electricity consumption now.
Development of nuclear program in Slovakia is another problem which attracted the international attention. Two old reactors (each 440 MW) in Jaslovske Bohunice with low safety standard (compared to international level) are forced to be shut down. Slovak government is willing to phase them out by the year 2000 when the new nuclear power plant in Mochovce will be put into operation. But Mochovce has been heavy hit and delayed by 5 years because of lack of financing. Recently (august 1996) Slovak government secured the financial resources for this project in several banks in Czech republic, Slovakia , Russia and some West European financial institutions.
The crucial question is whether there are some viable options to provide enough energy for future development of Slovak energy sector and also for overcoming the above mentioned problems. Many experts (and not only in Slovakia) are convinced that such options do exist and that they also could be cheaper than e.g. nuclear way. Energy savings, developmnet of combined heat and power plants and utilisation of renewable energy sources should be the building bricks of future energy policy in Slovakia. And there is also one good reason for going this way - unused potential is huge and with some legislative improvements it can be effectively utilised in the near future.
Before presenting the main features of sustainable energy path, especially in the power production sector, let take a look at the reasons for present overconsumption and inefficiency which characterise Slovak energy sector.
The high level of energy consumption in Slovakia is due to :
All these facts have been fueled by heavy subsidized energy prices in the past which made most of energy saving measures not attractive. Oil shocks in 70s and 80s which due to sharp increase of oil price stimulated higher energy efficiency in OECD countries had only minor impact on Slovakia because of dependence on cheap Russian oil and the fact that price was overall less important factor in centrally planned economies than in market economies.
In the latest development also poor energy legislation has led to rise of electricity consumption. This trend is visible e.g. in increased utilisation of electrical heating systems, what is the result of subsidised electricity prices and the rise of other fuel prices. Total power consumption of electrical heating systems reached 800 MW (approximately the output of nuclear power plant in Mochovce) during last winter. The main problem related to this is that these heating systems are not used in summer months and thus they are binding huge part of power capacity. In other words it means that the whole power system can not be used effectively through the whole year.
State control over energy sector in Slovakia is still extensive. Electrical power production is almost entirely controlled by Slovenske Elektrarne a.s. (SE). Despite privatisation of this utility which is in monopoly position , state owns 100% of SE shares. Ministry of economy plays the leading role in energy planning. The basic document related to energy which is regularly updated is so called Energy Policy for Slovakia until 2005. According to its latest version most important policy goals are :
Despite some positive features of this document it should be viewed as an open material and the subject to changes due to uncertainties in transformation process. Nevertheless most progressive goals oriented on renewables are often neglected in the praxis.
Primary energy sources
In comparison to developed countries, Slovakia has relatively high level of energy consumption per unit of GDP and per capita as well. For example per capita figure is 30% higher than that for Austria and 50% higher than in Hungary. Energy consumption per unit of GDP produced in Slovakia is 2-4 times higher than for developed countries.
There are following reasons for this situation:
It is quite obvious that improvements in energy efficiency have large potential and in most cases can be achieved at relatively modest costs. At present the main barrier is created by low (subsidised) energy prices. Subsidies lead to enormous distortions in the energy market. Their elimination thus became one of short term governmental policy goals. Despite claims that the direct subsidies have been eliminated most indirect subsidies still remain.
Industry is the largest energy consumer ( 55% ) where heavy industry consumes a particularly large share although the value added in comparison to energy use is low. It is expected that restructuring of this sector in next 5-10 years will result in substantial reduction in Slovak energy need. Actually the energy consumption in industry is continuously declining since 1990 and this decline was sharper than the decline of GDP. Nevertheless it must be stressed that this development is simply the result of economy transformation and not the impact of energy efficiency oriented measures. The potential of energy savings is huge and according to different domestic and foreign studies the 30% reduction can be achieved in short term. This is also the governmental goal.
Except of industry the inefficiency or better saying wasting of energy is typical for heating the houses. State support aimed at better isolation and heat regulations (maintanance) inside the buildings is the most visible measure implemented yet. Nevertheless this support was very modest according to the size of potential energy savings.
Meeting future energy needs is one of the priorities of governmental planning. Projection of future electricity consumption depends on evaluating of various factors where development of GDP and energy prices play a crucial role. Present situation and outlook for electricity consumption in future is slightly different than that for primary energy sources. Despite the fact that the share of industrial consumption is stil high (nearly 60%) and the potential for savings large, total electricity consumption is expected to grow. This is mainly due to the development of service sector and increased consumption in households. Actually this rise has been observed in 1995 and continues in the year 1996 as well. This increase can be related to the growth of GDP - 12% in last two years and also to the promotion of household electric heating.
Several studies based on Demand Side Management atempted to estimate potential of electricity savings in Slovakia.
According to the study of Belgian company TRACTEBEL E.V.A. 94 prepared for European Community in 1993 the realistic potential of 779 GWh (or 202 MW) in the year 2000 and 2247 GWh (or 575 MW) in year 2010 can be achieved in Slovakia. The main share is related to industry (40%). Average cost of saved energy are estimated at 0,4 Sk/kWh (1,3 US cents/kWh). The total technical potential was estimated 8179 GWh (or 1841 MW). The study also points out that several outside factors can influence the development of transformation process. Shortcoming of this study is that it is not based on actual Slovak data but uses data from US and Europe (Belgium).
There is also one important Slovak study prepared by Slovak Energy Institute E.V.A. 94 where estimated electricity savings potential reached 1745 GWh. This figure can be realised until the year 2005. According to the study up to 2600 GWh can be saved until the year 2010.
Two studies of Canadian company POWER SMART E.V.A. 94 has been also presented. According to the first one (1993) 742 GWh (or 616 MW) can be saved in base scenario . Recent study (1995) indicates potential of electricity savings of 1059 GWh or 324 MW in year 2010 for high energy growth scenario and 504 GWh or 134 MW for low energy growth scenario. Total implementation costs are estimated at 10,5 billion Slovak krowns (350 mil. USD) and 4,9 bill. Sk ( 160 mil. USD) respectively.
According to the above mentioned studies it can be concluded that electricity savings of 1-2 TWh can be achieved at reasonable costs in next 5-10 years. Higher gains are also possible, but the energy prices should be considerably higher. It is also very important that the transformation of economy and restructuring of industry creates an unique opportunity to introduce latest energy efficient technology. It is clear that all energy saving goals are meaningless without legislative support. Tough energy standards (appliances, wall isolation etc.) are urgently needed here.
As the result of economic transformation primary energy consumption (and electricity as well) declined considerably until 1994 and Slovakia became almost self-sufficient in power production. Despite the fact that most of fossil fuels including nuclear have to be imported. It means that no other new power facilities are needed now. The question how to substitute the output of two reactors in Jaslovske Bohunice with other sources than Mochovce can be solved by many ways.
Let consider improving efficiency of power production in Slovakia. When we compare total installed power capacity of nearly 7.100 MW with maximum annual peak load in December 1995 - 4.218 MW we see the large reserve which is quite unusual for other countries. It is obvious that the capacity of Slovak energy sector is not used effectively. If we take a closer look at power production at fossil fuel power plants in Vojany 1 fired by hard coal, Vojany 2 fired by natural gas and Novaky fired by brown coal we see huge unused potentials. There are two ways of increasing the power production in these plants:
At present the fossil fuel power plants in Vojany and Novaky are used only by less than 30% during the year. Actual production and potential power which can be generated in these facilities for different load factors is estimated in the following table.
Table 1.
CAPACITY Power Potential Potential
(MW) production production for production for
in 1993 5500 hrs/yr. 7.000 hrs/yr.
(TWh) (TWh) (TWh/yr.)
VOJANY 1 660 2,63 3,63 4,62
VOJANY 2 660 0,86 3,63 4,62
NOVAKY B 440 1,29 2,42 3,08
Total 1.760 4,78 9,68 12,32
Difference +4,90 +7,54
potential -
production in 1993
Jaslovske Bohunice 880 4,75
V-1 or Mochovce
It is obvious that the output of nuclear power plant in Jaslovske Bohunice (V-1) or Mochovce can be substituted by better utilisation (5000 hrs. annual load) of above mentioned fossil fuel power plants. Under the condition of 7000 hrs. annual load actual gain can substitute also the output of Gabcikovo hydro power plant.
In contrary to nuclear and fossil fuel power plants hydro power plants are utilised only few hours daily - they are connected and disconnected from the grid immediately during one minute when their power is needed. Large hydro power plants have been build in Slovakia during last 60 years and they present total output of more than 2.000 MW in 25 units (including pump hydro power plants). Their inefficient utilisation can be seen from the following example of maximal peak load of Slovak electricity grid (3.677 MW) during the year 1993 (November 23rd).
On this day nuclear power plant in Jaslovske Bohunice supplied 1300 MW, fossil fuel power plants provided 1.432 MW and hydro power - 455 MW what is only 12 % of their capacity . The rest was covered by industrial power plants (310 MW) and imports (180 MW). If we subtract 180 MW of Gabcikovo power plant we can see that only 275 MW out of 1.600 MW capacity was maximally used during this day . Reserve of nearly 1.400 MW in hydro power during the day of maximal annual peak load is terribly high.
During the summer minimum peak load (August 1993 - 2.700 MW) the distribution of power provided by different power plants was following nuclear power - 1300 MW, fossil power and industry 1.450 MW and hydro power 250 MW.
Inefficient utilisation of hydro power is obvious also in the case of pump hydro power plant Cierny Vah with total capacity of 735 MW. This facility which was build with extraordinary high costs was used only 540 hrs. in year and produced 397,7 GWh in 1993! This figure dropped at all time minimal record of 254 GWh in 1994 - total potential production here is estimated at 1595 GWh .
There are several possibilities how to effectively organise Slovak power systems on of them is based on study made by Ing. M. Bartolcic (FAE 95).
Table 2.
Power plant Installed power 1993 Power Proposed Power
capacity in production in Production in
MW GWh GWh
NPP Jasl. Bohunice V-1 2 x 440 4.747 -
NPP Jasl. Bohunice V-2 2 x 440 6.275 6.275
NPP Mochovce 2 x 440 - -
Vojany I (hard coal) 6 x 110 2.629 3.730(1)
Vojany (heavy oil, nat. 6 x 110 858 3.358(2)
gas)
Novaky B (brown coal) 4 x 110 1.286 2.489(3)
Kosice (hard coal, gas) 121 518 518
Total (NPP and fossil ) 16.313
16.370
(1) annual utilisation - 5650 hrs.
(2) annual utilisation - 5090 hrs.
(3) annual utilisation - 5660 hrs.
Table 3.
Hydro power plants Installed power 1993 Power Proposed
Power
capacity in production in Prod. in
MW GWh
GWh
Orava 21,75 23,7 30,1
Tvrdosin 6,10 10,7 18
Cierny Vah 735,16 1,3x 4x
352,7xx 1281xx
Liptovska Mara 198 54,3x 77x
36,5xx 192xx
Besenova 4,64 15,6 22
Sucany 101,55 190,8 235,4
(Krpelany,Sucany,Lipovec)
Miksova 180,3 253,7 355,2
(Hricov,Miksova,Pov.Bystr.)
Nosice 67,5 128,2 151,9
Dubnica 62,6 290,2 315,6
(Ladce,Ilava,Dubnica,Trencin)
Nove Mesto/vahom 76,5 282,6 340,6
(Kostolna, N.M./vah.,Horna
Str.)
Madunice 93,6 196 259,3
(Madunice,Kralova,Kozmalovce)
Gabcikovo 450 1962 1962
Dobsina 22,82 12,4x 23x
5,6xx 27xx
Ruzin 60 19,9x 41x
2,8xx 95xx
Small hydro power plants 98,44 17,1 1200xxx
Total 3857,3
6630,1
x - flow through power
xx - pumping power
xxx - total potential according to Slovak energy plan
Another opportunity to increase the output of power production in Slovak power plants in Vojany and Novaky is to improve their efficiencies. In modern coal fired power plants it is possible to reach 42 % efficiency for hard coal and 41 % for brown coal combustion. For natural gas fired facilities efficiencies up to 50 % are also possible. Retrofitting of these old facilities to up to date ones can bring further gains in power production . See the next table.
Table 4.
PRESENT CAPACITY POTENT. POTENT. Potent.
power
EFFICIENCY (MW) EFFICIEN. CAPACITY
production
(MW) 7.000
hrs/yr.
(TWh/yr.)
VOJANY 1 31 % 660 42 % 896 6,3
VOJANY 2 32 % 660 50 % 1.029 7,2
NOVAKY B 29 % 440 41 % 615 4,3
TOTAL 1.760
2.540 17,8
Improving energy efficiency in steam power plants can increase potential output up to total 17,8 TWh/year what is more than 250% its present production. Also in this case potential increase by 13 TWh/year (35% of Slovak annual power consumption) can substitute output of Jaslovske Bohunice (V-1), Mochovce (2 reactors) and can cover future increase of power consumption in Slovakia as well .
Combined heat and power (CHP) production is another cost effective way of energy production with huge potential for installing additional power capacity in Slovakia. These plants can be developed more rapidly than traditional energy production centres including nuclear power plants. And CHP production fired by natural gas is more environmentally friendly than coal fired power production. From economical point of view to build and operate CHP facility is cheaper than to build steam power plant and heating plant of the same size, not to mention the costs of nuclear power. Pay-back times of investment costs are shorter than in the case of other options (see the chapter below).
Saving of fuel resources and money through CHP production is obvious if we take a look at current state of electricity production. Nearly 70% of energy content of the fuel is lost in the form of waste heat. CHP production means using of this waste heat for heating purposes and thus increasing energy efficiency to sometimes more than 80%.
Another important point is that CHP plants need district heating systems (DHS as the infrastructure. DHS are quite common in Slovakia and in many towns where large scale CHP facilities can be build, they already do exist. Most of the larger Slovak towns are supplied with the heat from older heating plants where reconstruction is urgently needed. This can be done with converting them to CHP plants at less cost than to build new CHP plants.
According to the aims of Slovak governmental energy policy, which include retrofitting of energy facilities, higher utilisation of natural gas and increasing number of consumers supplied from large centralise sources of heat is proposed. Building of CHP plants fuelled with natural gas is the best option in most places.
Following considerations on development of CHP production in Slovakia are based on governmental suggestions (EK,1993). According to these data more than 1200 MW of power capacity could be established until the year 2008. These facilities are supposed to provide heat for large central heating systems in some Slovak towns. List and related data are in the following table.
Table 5.
CHP PLANT POWER HEAT POWER
INVESTM.
CAPACITY ( CAPACITY ( PRODUCT.
COSTS
MWe MWth (TWh/year
(mil. Sk)
BRATISLAVA 2 206 210 1,1 2 714
VOJANY 326,6 - 1,9 5 321
KOSICE 200 200 1,1 3 830
PRESOV 150 100 0,85 2 545
ZIAR N. HR. 150 100 0,85 2 550
SENNE 70 - 0,4 1 417
ZILINA 60 70 0,35 1 405
MARTIN 60 70 0,35 1 430
NOVAKY 60 290 0,35 1 535
TOTAL 1 282 - 7,25
22 747
Note : Construction of Bratislava 2 CHP has been signed on May 9th, 1996. Main partners in this business are Zapadoslovenske energeticke zavody (66 % shares), Slovensky plynarensky priemysel (24 % shares) and Slovak utility Slovenske elektrarne (10 % shares). The plant with maximal power capacity of 217 MWe will be build by Siemens until 1998 and will cost 3,2 bill. Sk.
According to estimates of Energy Institute (EI, 1994) another 790 MW of power capacity in CHP plants can be installed (see the following table ) in Slovakia. All data are based on potential heat market in these locations. Investment costs have not been estimated until yet.
Table 6.
CHP PLANT POWER CAPACITY HEAT CAPACITY
(MWe ( MWth
DUSLO SALA* 200 64
NOVE ZAMKY 55 60
BANSKA BYSTRICA 55 60
POVAZSKA BYSTRICA 50 60
RIMAVSKA SOBOTA 60 60
RUZOMBEROK 150 100
SERED 220 -
TOTAL 790 -
* industrial facility
Putting data from tables 3 and 4 together means that total potential for large-scale CHP plants is higher than 2000 MW what represents almost one third of the whole power capacity in Slovakia.
Possibility to retrofit small heating plants with capacity up to 25 MWth connected to DHS to CHP production do exist in all regions of Slovakia. To estimate the potential facilities have been divided into four groups:
A - heat capacity above 12 MWth
B - heat capacity between 8 and 12 MWth
C - heat capacity between 4 and 8 MWth
D - heat capacity under 4 MWth
Table 7. Number of small heating plants according to heat capacity in Slovakia.
GROUP NUMBER OF NUMBER OF INSTALLED
CAPACITY
HEATING PLANTS BOILERS (MWth
A 47 243 852,48
B 74 301 707,43
C 120 383 734,34
D 41 104 109,35
TOTAL 282 1 031 2
403,6
Installed heat capacity in small heating plants is relatively high but at present there are not appropriate conditions to convert all these facilities to CHP plants. Thus the estimate covers only part of them, mostly boilers in hospitals, schools and other institutions where heat market does exist during at least 5000 hours a year. According to our estimate small CHP plants could be cost-effectively installed in:
Most appropriate units for retrofitting to CHP plants are facilities in groups A and B (4-12 MWth ). Estimated potential of energy production in these units is 180 MWe and 270 MWth..
The following analysis is aimed at comparison of different alternatives for Slovak power sector - nuclear and non-nuclear. Governmental data were used as an input for economic analysis of various options. With the aim to provide 880 MW of power capacity, what is the output of two units in nuclear power plant Jaslovske Bohunice or Mochovce, we considered following options:
OPTION 1
This option is based on building five large CHP plants in Kosice, Presov, Ziar nad Hronom, Zilina and Vojany all fired by natural gas. Data on investment costs, energy inputs and outputs stems from table 3.
OPTION 2
Building two separate facilities also fired by natural gas - one large condensing power plant and one heating plant with outputs comparable to those in Option 1. This option is based on technical-economic analysis on possible substitution of nuclear power plant V-1 in Jaslovske Bohunice by gas firing CHP plant. Study has been prepared by Energy Institute (EI, 1993).
OPTION 3
Completion of nuclear power plant Mochovce. Investment costs of 22 billion Sk spent until 1993 has not been included in analysis. Fuel cost are based only on spent fuel storage in Russia - 1200 USD/kg (30 tones/year. Fresh fuel cost has not been available and thus was not included. Investment cost needed for completion of two reactor blocks - 1,3 bill. DM (26 000 Sk are based on governmental data (NS,1993). Decommissioning of power plant, disposal of low and medium radioactive wastes, insurance and other safety measures are not included.
COMPARISON OF OPTIONS
To compare above mentioned options it has been supposed that investment costs will be completely covered by banking loans. Present Slovak bank interest rates-19% discourage large investments hence more realistic 10% was also included. Prices for heat in district heating systems, electricity and natural gas are in table 6.
Table 8. Comparison of various options.
OPTION 1 OPTION 2
OPTION 3
ELECTRIC. CAPACITY (MWe 886,6 826,5 880
THERMAL CAPACITY (MWth 500 400 -
ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION 5 050 5 259,5 5 200
(GWh/year
HEAT PRODUCTION 8 670 6 936 -
(TJ/year
NATURAL GAS CONSUMPTION 1246 1 997,2 -
( mil. m3/year
CASH FLOW from electricity 7 413,4 7 720,9 7 633,6
production(1)
(mil. Sk/year
CASH FLOW from heat 1 300,5 1 040,4 -
production(1)
(mil. Sk/year
FUEL COST 4 423,3 7 090,1 1 152 (2)
(mil. Sk/year
CASH FLOW -FUEL COST (mil. 4 290,6 1 671,3 6 481,6
Sk/year
INVESTMENT COSTS
(mil. Sk 15 651 11 186
26 000
SIMPLE PAY-BACK (years (3) 6,79 any 8,26
SIMPLE PAY-BACK (years (4) 4,76 11,61 5,38
(1) based on energy prices (see Appendix)
(2) only cost of spent fuel export
(3) ... 19% interest rates
(4) ... 10% interest rates
DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS
As it can be seen the least cost variant is conventional steam power plant and heating plant. Required power capacity can be obtained for less than 50 % of investment costs needed for completion of nuclear power plant Mochovce (OPTION 3.
Least cost is not the only feature which must be take n into consideration. If we take a closer look at fuel prices we can see that this option is most expensive, hence other evaluation criteria are needed. Cost effectiveness can be determined by pay-back times of investment costs. Simple pay-back times used in this comparison take into consideration only investment costs, difference between cash flow and fuel cost.
From the results shown in table 7 it is clear that OPTION 1 - CHP plants and OPTION 3 - nuclear power plant achieved under present Slovak banking condition (rate of 19% the shortest pay-back times - 6,8 years and 8,3 years respectively. Least cost OPTION 2 - condensing steam and heating plants have no pay-back of investment costs so this option can be excluded from further comparison. This is the result of the highest fuel costs what is caused by inefficient use of energy content of the fuel.
If we compare only OPTION 1 and OPTION 3 we can see that not only shorter pay-back times but in particular less than 40 % investment costs make OPTION 1 - CHP production the best choice for meeting future energy needs in Slovakia.
Note: this result is also supported by latest contract signed for construction of CHP Bratislava 2 were 217 MWe will be build for 3,2 bill. Sk what means 14,75 mil. SK/MWe . In case of Mochovce this ratio is 29,55 mil. Sk/MWe.
Due to the lack of data it has been supposed that maintenance costs, profits and all other expenses are the same for all options what is certainly not the case of nuclear power where much higher cost in the future are to be expected (decommissioning.
It is important to mention that also under the most pessimistic conditions in the case of CHP plants determined by the highest price of natural gas and idealistic conditions for nuclear power plant (not included prices for fresh fuel and decommissioning the result is still in favour of CHP plants.
Summary of all above mentioned potential options and their gains in power production is included in the next table.
Table 9.
Item TWh/year Energy savings 1-2 Improving energy efficiency and 13 annual load factor of Vojany and Novaky CHP plants large 7,25 CHP plants small 0,75 Total potential gain 22 - 23 Total electricity consumption (1994) 25,05
Potential gain of 22-23 TWh/yr. can be compared to annual production of Slovak nuclear power plants and hydro power plant in Gabcikovo. See the next table.
Table 10.
Facility TWh/year Nuclear power plants 11,4 Jaslovske Bohunice V-1 and V-2 Nuclear power plant Mochovce 5,5 Gabcikovo hydro power plant 2,5 Total 19,4
The role that renewable energy sources could play in Slovakia is still underestimated by decision makers. Due to organizational barriers (local and decentralized sources), financial obstacles, specific technical problems (fluctuation with time, dispersion in space) and short term market type considerations, favoring of fossil fuels or nuclear are still common praxis.
The share of renewable energy sources on total primary energy consumption (750 PJ) in the year 1995 was inadequately low - only 23,2 PJ. Hydro power contributed 18,4 PJ and biomass (mostly wood) added the rest. This 3 % share could be compared to e.g. neighbouring Austria with similar geographical conditions where renewables cover 19,3% out of total energy consumption.
Renewable energy sources are victims of both policy failure and market failure. Energy market, and not only in Slovakia, belongs to the most distorted commodity markets. Producers of energy from fossil and nuclear fuels sell their output well below true cost to the economy. The independent producers who produce energy from renewables and impose negligible cost on the rest of society are still in disadvantage to their competitors with fossil fuels.
Internalization of external costs due to the environmental damage could open the way for renewables but it seems to be far from realization now even in more developed countries than Slovakia. Nevertheless there are quite good chances to build new renewable energy facilities and create the basis for sustainable energy path.
According to the experience from developed countries like Austria or Denmark it is possible to use waste biomass like straw or wood for heating purposes and thus solve several environmental, agricultural and social related problems. With respect to the significance of the agricultural sector and forest resources in Slovakia it may be assumed that the biomass could play the main role in renewable energy development .
Fuel wood and waste wood from industry are the main biomass sources used in Slovakia. Straw, energy plantation and biogas from manure are not utilised yet on commercial basis. Few projects with utilisation of biogas produced at water purification facilities started just recently but their energy output is negligible.
It is a pity that exploiting of the waste biomass potentials and turning it to net benefits have never been considered seriously in Slovakia. Low energy prices in the past and centralised way of energy supply are to be blamed. The situation is changing - energy prices are slowly reaching the world level and regional energy planning is also required thus the way for most cost-effective renewable energy projects is opening.
Promising seems to be also increasing number of domestic companies offering mainly wood combustion technologies.
Out of more than 5 mil. m3 (48 PJ) of wood which is annually removed from Slovak forests less than 10% is used for energy purposes. The potential of forest fuel is huge and resources like saw dust and waste wood could be exploited on cost effective basis. It is quite common that waste wood is utilised by industry but most of industrial facilities produce more heat than they can use. The chance for centralised heating systems to utilise this waste is here. Good outlooks do exists for 0,5 - 1 MW facilities. According to the estimate of ENERGO Levice more than 130 such systems can be installed in near future.
ECONOMY OF WOOD BURNING FACILITIES
There are several successful examples of projects with wood burning. Economy plays the crucial role here. In the table below comparison for small facilities with output less than 1 MW is presented.
Table 11.
Facility CAPACITY INVESTMENT COST RUNNING PRICE OF PRICE
OF HEAT
(kW) (Sk) COSTS WOOD
GENERATED (Sk/GJ)
(Sk/year) (Sk/year)
VERNER 20 32.500 9.640 13.000
158
ATMOS 80 82.500 20.700 52.000
127
RESEARCH 200 1.000.000 149.000 28.000
121
INSTITUTE
Investment costs are lower than e.g. for comparable facilities in Austria what is due to cheap domestic boilers available on the market. It is expected that district heating systems do exist and no additional costs are needed. The price of fuel differs considerably from site to site and is very low at places where problems with suitable removal of waste wood appears. Price of chips is 73 Sk/GJ for VERNER and ATMOS facility . Substitution of chips by wood briquettes (price 47 Sk/GJ) can further reduce the price of heat. Research facility announced lower fuel price 15 Sk/GJ.
Wood briquetting is quite popular in Slovakia now. There are some companies offering their products on the market. Actually large differences exists in price of briquettes. Price of loose briquettes is 38-150 Sk/GJ (490-835 Sk/t) or 56-168 Sk/GJ in packages. It is expected that recent annual production of 1600 tonnes will increase considerably when subsidies for heat will be cut. Subsidised price of heat is 150 Sk/GJ and without subsidies the price will increase up to 350 Sk/GJ at some places.
ECONOMY OF LARGE FACILITIES (UP TO 15 MW)
There is 3.000 MW of installed heat capacity in facilities with output less than 25 MW in Slovakia. Around 10% of them burn coal and are suitable for conversion to biomass. Next example shows the economy of fuel wood fired facility.
Table 12.
Investment costs 88 mil. Sk Capacity 15 MW Availability 2000 hours Efficiency 65% Heat production 108 TJ/year Price of waste wood 30 Sk/GJ
Price of heat generated under these conditions is 180 Sk/GJ and payback time is 13 years. This time can be reduced by more than 4 years when higher availability is required (2.500 hours). High investment costs are due to mainly imported technology.
ESTIMATION OF POTENTIAL
For estimation of wood potential we can use statistical data. There is 1,93 million ha of forest area in Slovakia with annual wood increment of 4 tonnes/ha /yr. This means that wood production is 7,7 mil tonnes per year or 77 PJ (under 60% humidity and energy content of 10 GJ/tonne). This 77 PJ is upper level which can not be completely utilised from several reasons including environmental ones.
Some estimates of so called realistic potential which can be expected in Slovakia has been made previously but they differ too much - from 6 PJ up to 60 PJ. In our approach data from Slovak research institutes dealing with forestry has been used. This potential is estimated as:
Table 13.
Amount (tonnes/year) Energy potential (PJ)
Fuel wood 350.000 3,5
Forest waste from 400.000 4
cuttings
Waste from wood 1.000.000 10
industry(1)
TOTAL 1.750.000
17,5
(1) assumed that waste creates up to 25% of wood processed by industry.
Main barriers in development of wood burning facilities are following :
Out of 2.4 mil. ha of agricultural land 1.5 mil. ha is arable where 0,9 mil. ha is used for grain production. From the point of view of its energy content straw can be considered as the valuable by-product of grain production because its heating content is higher than e.g. for domestic brown coal .
Straw is mostly used for soil conditioning and as the livestock bedding in stables and thus cannot be completely utilised for energy purposes. Nevertheless the potential for its energy utilisation is huge and is nearly unknown. No commercial facilities exists in Slovakia yet. The energy content of straw can be used for:
ESTIMATION OF POTENTIAL
For estimation of straw potential statistical data based on grain production (1991) were used.
Table 14.
Grain (1000 tonnes) Straw (1000 tonnes) Energy potential (PJ)
Wheat 2.219 2.441 34,7
Rye 159 239 3,4
Barley 780 780 11,1
Maize 729 729 10,4
TOTAL 3.887 4.188 59,5
As it was mentioned above the total potential can not be completely used. For realistic estimation 1/3 of total straw amount is assumed to be released for energy purposes. Thus the potential of around 20 PJ can be expected on annual basis.
Very promising seems to be the utilisation of straw from rape seed production. There are around 40.000 ha used for this plantation in Slovakia now . Average annual rape straw production is 4 t/ha and with its energy content of 18 GJ/tonne up to 2,9 PJ/yr. can be expected.
Main barriers in development of straw burning facilities are following :
It is important to note that some decision makers in agricultural farms are very good informed about the technology and its benefits. And some of them even make a profit from export of bales of straw to nearby Austria, where e.g. facility in Wolfsthal is fired also by Slovak straw.
Promising potential is linked to biogas production and its utilisation for energy production. In contrary to straw and wood firing, biogas can be used without problems also for electricity generation. Many types of suitable gas engines are available on the Slovak market now.
Biogas can be incinerated in the gas engine generator of a block-type thermal power plant. The waste heat of the electricity generation may be used for heating purposes. This energy can be used e.g. by agro-farms or on community level. According to the law the excess electricity should be purchased by the utility.
High concentration of agricultural animals in large farms (heritage of socialist economy) creates good conditions for biogas production. Moreover, the manure load in the soil, which is often too high, would be significantly reduced because degassed manure can be used as high-quality fertiliser. Safe storage of manure is also a serious and very costly problem at numerous places. Biogas production from manure and its utilisation for energy purposes can be the right solution for this.
Other types of organic wastes produced mainly by food industry are also suitable sources of biogas. Furthermore biogas can be produced and utilised at many water purification facilities with some of them already having experiences in this way of energy generation in Slovakia.
ESTIMATION OF POTENTIAL
The potential is relatively high and the first attempts to show viability are just starting. Total energy potential of biogas is estimated at 15 PJ where 10 PJ is related to manure utilisation and 5 PJ to other forms of organic wastes like those originated in food industry .
Estimation of the potential can be shown on the example of using only manure from cows. For 1 million cows in Slovakia 10 mil. tonnes /yr. of liquid manure can be used for biogas production . Biogas potential is 0,23 billion. m3 and its total energy potential is 5,4 PJ or 1,5 * 109 kWh . Using combined heat and power production 0,5 billion kWh of electricity and 1 billion kWh (3,6 PJ) of heat can be produced annually. Additional potential can be expected from utilisation of manure from other animals like pigs and poultry.
It is important to note that for average heat consumption by Slovak flats which is 0,6 GJ/m2 (49 GJ/flat/year) only the biogas potential of manure form cows is sufficient to give the heat for 73 000 flats.
Barriers of future development are similar to those in the case of straw utilisation where financing of biogas projects seems to be the main obstacle in present situation. Due to the economic transformation process agricultural farms are facing big financial problems. Most of these facilities depend on state subsidies which cover their production losses and it is obvious that farmers do not posses budgets for energy related projects. To improve the economy of biogas utilisation costs of environmental protection like ground water contamination should be included into financial analysis.
It is expected that after its transformation agricultural sector will be facing the same type of problems with overproduction and setting the land aside as we can see them in Western Europe. This set aside land can be used for different purposes one of them is energy crops plantation.
Planting special crops or trees for energy purposes can be more cost effective than e.g. utilisation of wood as the fuel. This is the result of higher annual yields (increments) of short rotation plants than are the increments of ordinary trees.
The most promising crops which can be planted for energy purposes in our region are plants like coppice (various willows and poplars), Miscanthus or Sweet Sorghum. These crops can be utilised by direct combustion for heat and even electricity production. Annual gain can reach up to 25 tonnes of dry matter per hectare for Miscanthus or Sweet Sorghum. The energy content of these plants is between 16-20 GJ/tonne what means that up to 400-500 GJ/ha can be achieved annually.
Estimated costs related to planting, cutting and transporting energy crops are 600-1000 Sk/tonne what means that e.g. in the case of Sweet Sorghum (18 GJ/tonne of dry matter) the production costs would be 33 - 55 Sk/GJ what is less than cheapest brown coal. It is also important to note that energy content of Sweet Sorghum which is possible to grow in Central Europe is higher than energy content of Slovak brown coal (11,3 GJ/tonne) which is commonly used for heating purposes here.
ESTIMATION OF POTENTIAL
There are several estimates what size of land should be set aside due to economic and environmental reasons. According to the forestry research institute estimate the upper level is 400.000 ha of agricultural land which can be used for other than agricultural purposes and this leave the way open for energy plantation. Total (maximal) energy potential which can be expected here is 200 PJ but obviously this is a long term prospect.
According to governmental proposal up to 50.000 hectares of soil not suitable for agriculture will be reforested until the year 2000. If this area would be used for energy plantation energy output of 25 PJ can be expected. It means that this fuel source can substitute more than 2 million tonnes of brown coal what is around 1/4 of annual brown coal mining in Slovakia.
The barriers of future development are the same as for biogas or straw utilisation with additional barrier which is created by longer period of growth which can be for some crops up to 2-3 years. This means binding of capital for longer time without bringing quick profits. For most of agricultural farms with their financial problems this is unacceptable. State support is thus inevitable to reach the goals.
Short rotation crops may require as much fertilisation as traditional food crops and degraded land must be regenerated before cultivation using fertilisation. However these drawbacks may be offset by the fact that tree crops retain an active root system throughout the year. Wood ash would be an effective fertiliser for biofuel plantations, reducing the problems caused by the leaching of fertilisers into ground water.
Total potential of hydro power in Slovakia is exploited by more than 70%. Last year nearly 20% of domestic power consumption was covered by hydro. Main share of this figure was achieved by 21 large hydro power plants with capacity above 10 MW. Nevertheless potential of small hydro power plants (SHPP) is still not used effectively where only 11% of this potential is exploited on annual basis.
Hydro power is also a controversial issue because especially large hydro power schemes have negative impact on living inhabitants of rivers. Construction works are hard to realize without degradation of local environment and this is also the case of problematic hydro power plant in Gabcikovo.
The governmental goal is to further increase the utilization of hydro power in near future and this effort can be seen at several places now. In the next table the list of large hydro power plants under construction or in planning is presented.
Table 15.
POTENTIAL OF LARGE HPP GWh/yr. MW VE Zilina 170 85 VE Sered 158 64 VE Strecno 151 100 VE Horny Vah III 418 156 TOTAL 897 405
Another large hydro power plant on the river Danube is planed with Austria . Output of this facility is expected to be 450 GWh/yr.
Beside 1000 MW capacity already installed in pump hydro power plants another 710 MW can be build on the river Ipel. Despite huge investment into pump hydro in the past this capacity is not used effectively for peak power production. 1995 figure was less than 20% of its potential and the share is continuously declining.
SHPP are not new in Slovakia they have been build here since 1920. A lot of older facilities has been abandoned during 'socialist approach' of power production - large centralized power plants burning fossil fuels has been much more attractive than small plants of all kinds. Hence there still exist large unused potential for development of small hydro schemes.
It is important to note that development of SHPP is more environmentally friendly than construction of larger schemes. Furthermore combined power capacity which can be build in SHPP is of the same order than that in large ones.
It is a general experience that facilities with output less than 10 MW could be very cost effective in Slovakia. The unused potential is estimated at 350 MW or 1,2 TWh/year. SHPP projects at more than 100 sites with total capacity higher than 40 MW and estimated costs of 3 billion SK (100 mil USD) are already prepared for the realisation. Independent power producers are very interesting in this area but financial burden is too high for most them.
For Slovak utility SE a.s. investments here are not attractive because of relative small output and potential problems with handling many small scale facilities. Furthermore there is enough room for SE a.s. to build large hydro power plants.
Despite all these problems with development of SHPP one important financial argument is often forgotten - lifetime expectancy for SHPP is often more than 50 years where some facilities are working for more than 70 years in Slovakia. This figure is incomparable to any other type of power plant and thus make cost effectiveness of SHPP better than e.g. nuclear.
ESTIMATION OF POTENTIAL
According to governmental figures hydro potential can be estimated as:
Table 16.
MW GWh/yr.
1995 Production
(GWh)
LARGE HYDRO POWER PLANTS 2.235 6.142 4.960
SMALL HYDRO POWER PLANTS 340 1.219 140
TOTAL 2.575 7.361
5.100
Main barriers in development of small hydro power plants are following :
Nearly 40.000 m2 of solar collectors for warm water production are installed in Slovakia. This figure can be increased considerably also because one of the largest solar collector producer in the Europe (Thermo/Solar) is based here. Annual production of almost 100.000 m2 top quality selective collectors made in joint venture with German know-how is mostly exported , only tiny 4% are sold on domestic market.
Lifetime of 20-25 years, annual energy production of 500 kWh/m2/yr. and price 4.000-4.500 Sk/m2 (150 USD/m2) for these collectors means that price of heat generated is 100 Sk/GJ what is less than what is paid in district heating systems (150 Sk/GJ).
According to the latest experience solar collectors can be effectively used in water heating systems of small companies or schools (running on electricity now) where shortest payback times can be achieved: 5-7 years.
Photovoltaics is another sources of solar energy (electricity) generation. The potential is huge and theoretically the whole power consumption of Slovakia can be covered by market available technology using only 0,5 % of area of Slovak Republic. Nevertheless due to high costs and several other problems materialisation of this potential can not be expected in reasonable period of time.
ESTIMATION OF POTENTIAL
Governmental estimate of solar collector energy potential is 4,9 PJ what means that 2,7 mil. m2 of collectors can be installed in Slovakia. Ten per cent of this potential is expected to be installed in near term (until the year 2005).
Promising seems to be the utilisation of air solar collectors which are cheaper than water collectors. Air temperatures 30-50 ´C can be achieved and used in agriculture for drying of hay, crops or wood. The potential for air collectors is estimated at 0,1 - 0,5 PJ.
Main barriers in development of solar collectors are following :
There is 4.300 km2 of mostly mountain area where average wind velocities are higher than 4 m/s and where total potential of 1-3 TWh/year was estimated by Energy Institute (EGU). Attempts to show viability of wind projects have been made at several places. Two wind mills - Danish 100 kW turbine which produced 368 MWh/year and Czech 315 kW turbine which produced 565 MWh/year - were tested at one test site north of Bratislava. In these cases high investment costs of 8 resp. 9 mil. Sk (260.000 resp. 300.000 USD) and high interest rates led to long payback times which were comparable with the lifetime expectancy of the wind mills.
Main barriers in development of wind power are following :
Several geological surveys showed that Slovakia is relatively rich on geothermal sources. Water temperature of these sources varies between 75 and 95 C and is suitable for heating purposes.
In the history this energy source has been used mainly by agriculture and installed thermal capacity in 50 facilities was 600 MW. Average borehole depth was 2.500 meters and the average temperature of the water was 60-80 ´C. The technology used in the past was very simple and the energy content of these sources was not used effectively. Many of these facilities has been closed down mainly because of problems with high content of minerals in the water (4 g/l in average) and the contamination of surface waters. Latest level of mineral contents in the effluent water which is allowed to be released into rivers is 0,8 g/l what means that cleaning or re-injection of geothermal waters into wells is needed.
It is estimated that around 35 facilities with total capacity of 100-200 MW are still in operation. Nevertheless further development of geothermal energy will depend on how the problems with waste waters will be solved. Promising seems to be the latest joint venture signed between Slovak and Iceland companies on further utilisation of geothermal resources in Slovakia.
ESTIMATION OF POTENTIAL
According to governmental data total potential which can be exploited by the year 2010 is estimated at 5.200 MWt or 7160 TJ/yr.
Main barriers in development of geothermal energy are following :
State support into geothermal energy should be directed to the regions where the fossil fuels can be effectively substituted by this source.
According to the different kinds of its estimation renewable energy potential can be expressed in several ways. In this study so called maximal or upper bound and realistic potentials (mostly based on governmental and other scientific projections) were selected. Estimates on potential heat and electricity generation should also be considered separately.
As it can be seen from the table below where estimates of above mentioned potentials can be found, realistic potential can cover around 40% of electricity consumed in Slovakia or 15% of the heat consumption. Nevertheless these figures should be seen on the background of huge wasting of energy and energy inefficiency which is the main feature of Slovak energy sector.
Table 17. Renewable energy potential in Slovakia
Maximal
Realistic Electricity
PJ/yr.
PJ/yr. production
TWh/yr.
BIOMASS ENERGY
- WOOD 77
17,5 -
- STRAW 62,4
22,9 -
- BIOGAS 15
5 1,6
- ENERGY CROPS PLANTATION 200
25 -
HYDRO ENERGY 26,6
26,6 7,4
SOLAR ENERGY 5
0,5 -
WIND ENERGY 10,8
3,6 1-3
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 7,2
7,2 -
TOTAL 404
108,3 10 - 11,9
Heritage of centralized energy planning and energy companies living in monopoly position together with the philosophy based on large-scale investments in supply side presents the highest barrier to be overcome. Decentralized, democratic planning based on least-cost principles including environmental and social costs and giving the same opportunity to independent energy producers utilizing renewables is still strongly undervalued in Slovakia.
Cutting state subsidies and other cross subsidies mainly for electricity and district heating systems (households) seems to be the simplest measure to overcome the obstacles of renewable energy development. Despite several governmental proclamation this process is going slowly and is assumed to have negative impact on life standard.
It was also stressed that the share of family budget spent on energy is higher in Slovakia than in developed countries as it can be seen from the table bellow (electricity costs). The share of family budget spent on heating and warm water is also higher here than in more developed countries.
Table 18.
Households (1995) GERMANY SLOVAKIA Average monthly electricity 250 kWh 211 kWh consumption Monthly Costs 85 DM 215 Sk Share of average monthly 2,8 3,5 family income
Including external cost (environmental and other damages) into the price of energy, what means rising of energy prices, is politically not attractive because the political will to make changes is mostly framed by election periods leaving the long term problems untouched. Another distortion is created by the fact that costs related to environmental damage and impact of pollution on health status due to low quality coal burning are covered from other parts of state budget.
One possible way how to overcome the lack of financing is creation of a financial fund by small tax levied on imported fuels (coal, natural gas, oil and uranium . Slovakia heavy depends on imported fuels - up to 90 % of primary energy sources comes from abroad thus only a tiny tax can create huge revenues. Tax not higher than e.g. 2,5 % of the price of imported fuels could create 1 billion Sk (30 mil. USD annually what is 10 times more than recent governmental support for energy efficiency and renewable energy programs. This budget would be sufficient to launch several renewable energy programs under more favorable financial conditions.
Promising seems to be the governmental proposal to establish Energy Rotation Fund aimed at energy savings and renewables. Contribution from PHARE (3,8 mil ECU), EBRD (7,6 mil. EC) and other domestic sources should build the basis for future renewable energy development. Advantage of this Fund is that soft loans (12% interest rates) are considered here. Disadvantage is that loans are required to be paid in 4 years what will strongly restrict the number of financed projects.
State energy policy and less developed infrastructure have negative impact on renewable energy development. Main obstacles are:
Most of these barriers are known also in developed countries , but successful methods how to overcome them are not known or introduced in Slovakia yet.
Table 19. Barriers in general
Biogas Wood Biomass Energy Solar Small
Wind
in industry crops collectors hydro
High costs * * * *** ** **
***
Low energy price *** *** ** *** *** ***
***
Long payback ** ** ** ** *** **
**
Market *** 0 ** ** 0 0
**
availability
Information ** ** ** ** * 0
*
deficit
0 - no barrier
* - less important barrier
** - important barrier
*** - very important barrier
It is a commonly made mistake that energy output is seen as the only factor in comparison between different energy sources. Sustainable energy path which put more emphasis on energy efficiency, renewable energy sources and decentralized way of energy production provides several important benefits for the society like:
Energy prices do not reflect above mentioned benefits yet. Environmental benefits like lower pollution levels are hard to estimate in terms of financing mechanisms. Impacts of acid rains or climate change resulting from fossil fuel combustion will probably never be estimated.
Slovakia is one of those postcommunists countries where unemployment is one of the highest social priority. Major part of more than 320 000 people, recently without work and representing 13% of workforce, can make profit from sustainable energy development. Launching programs aimed at renewable energy utilization could substantially cut the number of unemployed people, strengthen the economy and improve environment.
Estimates on potential job creation through renewable energy development can be based on governmental data presented in Energy Policy for Slovakia until the Year 2005. According to this document following potentials of renewables can be expected :
Table 20.
SOURCE POTENTIAL Solar energy 4,9 PJ Biomass waste wood 6,1 PJ straw + energy plantation 8,0 PJ biogas 7,9 PJ Small hydro power plants 1,2 TWh Geothermal energy 7,8 PJ
Taking into account the experience from developed countries following number of new jobs can be expected.
Table 21.
PROGRAM NUMBER OF NEW JOBS Solar energy 5 000 Biomass 2 600 Small hydro power plants 23 000 Geothermal energy 1 000 TOTAL 31 600
Sustainable energy development based on renewables would mean that one out of ten unemployed people in Slovakia could find a new job in this area. This development could be very important in rural areas where unemployment is higher than average (up to 20%.
There are governmental proclamations that the contribution of renewable energy should cover 6% of primary energy consumption (OECD level) by the year 2010 in Slovakia. This goal which appeared in energy policy means that the government is willing to increase the present level of utilisation of these sources. Nevertheless being aware of renewable energy potential the goal was set too low.
Despite clear advantage for economy many renewable energy technologies are still not interesting for potential investors and end users. The reasons are different but the most important ones are the subsidies for fossil fuels (coal, energy for households). Other hidden subsidies like tax relief for state energy producers and covering the costs of environmental revitalisation (damage caused by fossil fuel burning) from state budget are also important. Until these subsidies will be completely removed , what is actually also the goal of government, support for renewable energy is inevitable.
This support should include :
SLOVAK GDP DEVELOPMENT 1994 bil. Sk 1995 bil. Sk
196,8 210,2
Note : 30 Sk = 1 USD
PRIMARY ENERGY CONSUMPTION
Fuel 1993 1995
in PJ in PJ
solid (coal, wood) 275 275
gasous (natural gas) 206 211
liquid (oil) 130 144
heat from nuclear power 120 138
plants
electricity (hydro+imports) 18 15
TOTAL 749 783
SLOVAK POWER GENERATION CAPACITY
Installed capacity 1994 1995
in MW in MW
Steam 2.970 2.981
Nuclear 1.760 1.760
Hydro 1.460 1.640
Pump hydro 735 735
TOTAL 6.925 7.116
1994 1995
Maximal load 3.778 MW (Dec.19) 4.218 MW (Dec. 12)
Domestic production 24.740 Gwh (1) 25.905 GWh(1)
Consumption 25.178 GWh 27.323 GWh
(1) production at Slovenske Elektrarne a.s. - 88,2 %
LARGEST CONSUMERS - 1995
Company Activity Power consumption
in GWh
OFZ metalurgy (ferrous 661,19
alloys)
Slovalco Ziar n. Hronom aluminium smelter 508,96
Duslo Sala chemical 274,18
LARGE POWER PLANTS
Source Fuel MW Connection to the
grid
Jaslovske Bohunice Nuclear 4*440 1978-85
Mochovce Nuclear 2*440 1998-99
Vojany 1 hard coal 660 1965-67
Vojany 2 natural gas, heavy 660 1973-74
oil
Novaky A brown coal 108,8 1953-57
Novaky B brown coal 440 1964-1976
Gabcikovo hydro 8*90 1992-95
Cierny Vah pump hydro 735 1982
ENERGY PRICES IN SLOVAKIA
Heat 150 Sk / GJ Electricity 1,47 Sk /kWh(1) Natural gas 3,55 Sk/m3
(1) average value
E.V.A. 94 - Moznosti zvysenia energetickej ucinnosti v SR, Zaverecna sprava Energie Verwertunsagentur, jun 1994
EK (1993) Energeticka koncepcia pre Slovensko do roku 2005, Ministerstvo Hospodarstva, Bratislava, jun 1993.
EK (1994) Energeticka koncepcia pre Slovensko do roku 2005, Ministerstvo Hospodarstva, Bratislava, 1994 Revision.
(EI,1993 ) EGU, Technicko-ekonomicka studia 'Nahrada odstavenia JE V-1 po roku 1995 zdrojmi na baze PPC', Bratislava, 1993.
(EI, 1994) EGU, Moznosti rozsirenia kombinovanej vyroby elektriny a tepla na Slovensku, Bratislava 1994.
(FAE 95) - Ing. M.Bartolcic : Moznosti usporiadania energetickej sustavy SR, 1995
(NS,1993) B.Sestrienka, Nove Slovo , Bratislava , 30.8.1993.