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 WETLANDS FOR LIFE C o n t e n t s :
Wetland. The name itself provokes an image of water, and water means life. Since the arrival of the first inhabitants to this region, wetland areas have been used for fishing, hunting and harvesting in different forms for their existence. Despite this fact wetlands are considered to be "swamps" where millions of mosquitoes are hatched, and considered to be more useful when drained for use as agricultural land. This was also one reason why wetlands were drained and transformed into fields (more than 4500 km2 of land was drained, which is almost 1/10 of Slovakia). After drainage occurred, the underground water level decreased so much that the use of these fields without irrigation was not possible. The circle has closed. First, large investments were made to drain the land, then additional investments were needed to create irrigation for crops. Other human influences which have destroyed or decreased wetlands have been the construction of dams, and dikes, river regulation and peat mining. In the last ten years, global attention has increased to save threatened wetlands. International interest groups have assisted in efforts to study, conserve and restore wetlands. One reason is that wetlands have been rapidly disappearing and with them a great number of unique living organisms have gone extinct. Due to the extent of degradation to wetlands, they are considered to be the most threatened ecosystems of the world. By recognising the functions of wetlands, people can gain an understanding for their necessity in sustainable human living. Therefore, it is our interest to stop further degradation of wetlands and contribute to their restoration and preservation. This brochure was produced within the framework of the project "Wetlands for Life" by the DAPHNE Foundation. The Ramsar committee from the Slovak Ministry for the Environment and other experts were also involved with the preparation of this brochure. At the same time it is a contribution towards the commemoration of the 25th anniversary of the adoption of the Ramsar Convention for wetland conservation. However, the main reason is the very serious problem of wetland conservation and its high significance even in Slovakia. Encouragement for us was the consciousness that each of us can make a difference in the conservation of these valuable areas, with a proper understanding of the value and function which they provide for sustainable human living. If you want to join us and to know what types of wetlands
can be found in Slovakia, what wetlands are about, their functions, and
their significance for people, the following pages of this brochure will
answer these questions for you.
Nearly everyone knows about marshes, swamps, bogs, flooded forests and meadows, from their own experiences, or from movies, television and reading. The common term for these habitats is "wetland." Wetlands are usually created during times of periodical flooding in depression areas, along rivers and lakes, or by seashores. Some of them can also be found on hillsides, where ground water is filtered through. Wetlands are transitional lands between aquatic and terrestrial habitats. Their exact definition is always problematic and it can be discussed for a very long time. In this publication we are defining wetlands as follows: ”Wetlands are transitional lands between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by a thin layer of water. They must have three characteristics:
Why is it necessary to conserve wetlands in their original state? Because with their important functions, they are indispensable for human existence. Wetlands are very important for biodiversity conservation. The species richness of organisms is caused by many different habitats, created in dependence of ground water level and the duration of floods. Several centimeters is often the distinction between life and death for many plant and animal species. None of the species live in isolation, but are connected by many relationships with other species of this ecosystem. The result is a complicated network of symbiotic relationships. If one important species is eliminated from the network, this may result in dramatic effects to the entire system. We are unable to predict what will happen to an ecosystem due to interference and changes created by man. Wetlands are very effective at removing nutrients from water, mainly nitrogen and phosphorous. This process keeps the levels of nitrogen and phosphorous from getting to high. Growing vegetation absorbs nutrients from the water for their growth and maintenance. The result is the effective removal of nutrients from the water and preventing the process of eutrophication. Wetlands act as a purification process to clean organic materials, chemicals and other pollutants from ground and surface water. Some species of wetland plants also assist in this purification process (Scirpus validus). How wetlands act in the purification process can be documented on an example of Tinicum wetland (250 ha), in Philadelphia (USA). Each day it removes from the water 4.9 tons of phosphorous, 4.3 tons of ammonium and enriches the water with 20 tons of oxygen. Wetlands also slow flood waters allowing sediments, nutrients, pesticides, heavy metals and other toxic metals to be trapped and absorbed into the soil. Wetlands are globally considered to be the most productive ecosystems. Wetland vegetation is a very effective use of the suns energy. Plants use light through the process of photosynthesis for the replication of cells and building of biomass. A result of this process is the release of oxygen by the plant. This biomass then serves as food for numerous species of aquatic and terrestrial animals and plants. Under natural conditions wetlands protect the land against floods. They catch surges of flooding water, and slow down running water. Captured water is then slowly released. In this way wetlands help with flood control, because the flood peaks on the tributaries do not reach the main stream at the same time. This function is very important, mainly in places of high population densities. By regulations, straitening of rivers and decreasing of flooded areas by the construction of dikes, the river is loosing its dynamic characteristics. We can compare this state with the situation when we put on coat which is too small for us. After the first awkward movement, the coat will tear somewhere. Wetlands are transitional areas between terrestrial and aquatic habitats which protect the land against erosion. Wetland vegetation can reduce bank erosion in different ways: root systems which stabilise the bank, reduce the effect of flooding waters and slow down a stream by friction. Mainly trees act as stabilisers for river banks. Wetlands are very important for people as a water resource. They serve as water reservoirs that are filled up when there is enough water and gradually let out when there is lack of water. Consequently, they serve in the high production of wood, hay and reeds. All of which have been used from historical times for traditional uses. Wetlands are also used as pastures, and for fishing and hunting. Above all, lowland wetlands are very popular for visitors because of a high diversity of different habitats and species. Their use for recreation in Slovakia is still very low. Wetlands give a lot of opportunities for educational activities. This is very important if we want to protect and restore them. The only way to change people's attitudes about the value that wetlands contain for human living is through educating people and providing them with opportunities to explore and understand the necessity to preserve them. Moral imperative: ”What you can not create, do not destroy” is especially urgent in this case. As wetlands are destroyed the land function and biodiversity are also damaged.
Inland wetlands are of a palustrine, riverine or lacustrine system type. This division is made according to how the wetland is supplied with water. In the cases of riverine and lacustrine systems, the wetlands are influenced by the water level of rivers and lakes. In the palustrine system of wetlands, water is supplied by groundwater, rain, snow and during periods of floods. The characteristics of the three major wetland systems:
Most common are palustrine vegetation types, so we are concentrating on their characteristics. Vegetation types of riverine and lacustrine systems connected with specific palustrine vegetation types are added in the scheme on the inside cover page. Besides this classification, other types of classification systems also exist. The most well known system of classification is that as described by the Ramsar Convention. This classification system also considers wetlands which contain deepwater habitats. If there are some ponds, reservoirs and canals created by man we did not classify them as a specific category, but we included them in the review if they follow the definition. .Going upstream of the river, softwood floodplain forests are exchanging into submontane and montane alder forests. This kind of forest is also present along small channels. There are also wilow shrub areas along rivers and small streams which are described later on. Sediments of rivers and small channels create suitable living conditions for alder forests. The soil composition is mainly stones and gravel. Because of the high level of groundwater, the soil is saturated throughout the year. In alder forests, surface floods are more often than in floodplain forests in the lowlands and flood waters take 2-3 days to dissipate. Channels which overflow have a negative and destructive impact to banks reinforced by alder forests and the result is a creation of ravines. Except for this, floods bring a wealth of nutrients and nitrates and increase their content in the soil. This is why there are a great amount of water dependent species (hydrofyts) represented and species preferring nutrient abundant soil. The most important function of alder forests on banks is to stabilise and to protect the bank against erosion. The root systems of vegetation help to stabilise the soil and retain nutrients. Bank vegetation along rivers are suitable places for many different vegetative and animal species. From history we can tell that alder forests were influenced by many human activities. Over a wide territory, but mostly on the floodplains, alder forests were destroyed and changed into pastures and meadows. There are fields of potatoes, cabbage, barley, oats growing on the higher terraces without the influence of floods. Well preserved vegetation is rarely presented, only on few places of original alder forests occur in our country.
Fen alder forests are typically located in depressions. These areas are sustained by groundwater and rarely flooded by surface water. This type of wetland is created during periods when vegetation overgrows the surface of the water. They represent the last period of development for moisture dependent plant communities. Fen alder forests are located in small regions of Zahorska and Vychodoslovenska lowlands, but the largest complex is located near Bratislava, in the Podunajska Lowland. The advantage of alder wood in the environment with a stable water regime is that they are able to regenerate very quickly after harvesting. A different evolution of the wetlands occurs when the water regime is changed by a reduction in flooding or a decrease in the groundwater level. The upper layer of the fen soil is dried and later mineralized. This results in a succession from wetland species to terrestrial species. On many places these types of wetlands are used for intensive agriculture after complete drainage.
We do not need to travel to Siberia to see this type of bog. They are able to be found in the High Tatras or in the Orava region. Spruce bog locations are permanently wet and the water is retained on the surface and slowly absorbed into the soil. Spruce trees growing in very unsuitable conditions such as low nutrient levels and low concentrations of oxides have different heights and shapes from those living on soil rich areas. Spruces are low, crooked and of low density. It is interesting to see a 100 year old spruce tree which is only 3 meters tall and has a very thin trunk. Another typical feature of spruce bogs is that their surface is constantly covered by a bog. The grass, shrubs and sedges are also represented here by having a lower density. Spruce bogs have an important function in the water regime. They are able to retain water in the soil and prevent it from draining. Spruce bogs serve as a supply of water which is gradually released, used and evaporated during dry periods. The most serious threat for these wetlands are the melioration and cultivation resulting in the harvesting of trees, drainage and their transformation into pastures and fields. Today, spruce bogs belong to the rarest type of wetlands and they demand immediate protection and preservation.
Birch and pine bogs are a type of woodland vegetation present in the ecotones of open land peat bogs. They are situated in depressions where water in supplied by surface or ground water. Usually they are found between 200-900 m in elevation. These types of bogs have been endangered, severely damaged or reduced in size due to drainage activities and cultivation of soil for agricultural purposes. Presence of these bogs in coniferous forests contributes to a higher number of species compared to these types of forests without bogs. Better light conditions support a higher presence of shrubs and the cavities in the soft wood of birch trees are habitat for a number of small plant and animal species.
The habitat and species composition is similar to the tall-herb wetland, except here spruce trees are also present. They usually exist in close relation to each other. The difference from other spruce forests is that the leaves of the herbs are larger. They are located in places with favorable conditions which include: below rock cliffs, wide valleys, glens, and depressions with periodic or perennial streams. The largest areas are found between 1100-1500 m in elevation in the Fatra mountain ranges, the Tatras, the Muránska Planina Plane, and Slovak Rudohorie. The basic function of the spruce forest is to protect the soil from erosion. The roots of the trees stabilize the banks and during periods of flooding, trunks act to slow rushing water. In the past, many of the tall-herb spruce forests had been damaged by pastures. Today, almost all of them are within the protected areas and are in good condition. Before the advent of urbanization in our country, softwood floodplain forests had been found near rivers or streams. Burning and clear-cutting practices have changed these forests into pastures, meadows and fields. Floods, the water regime and the level of ground water are factors that influence the character of a floodplain forest. Willow-poplar forests are located in places characterized by long-term and high level floods. After flooding, a typical gray layer can be found on the leaves indicating the high level of water. As the level of ground water rises, the soil becomes inundated with a high concentration of nutrients and nitrogen. Willow-poplar forests, when found in a natural state, have the same benefits as wetlands. The greatest benefit is the prevention of floods: tree roots slow down the rushing floodwater, thereby preventing bank erosion. Trees and shrubs benefit greatly from the large amounts of minerals and organic substances brought in by floodwater. They also keep the water clean by filtering out these various products found in floodwater. One of the most threatened types of wetlands in Slovakia is the softwood floodplain forest. Only a few of them remain around the Morava, Danube and Latorica rivers. Their biggest threats arise from dams and in the regulation of river basins. A noted example is the Gabcikovo Dam, which caused the destruction of about 40 km2 of floodplain forest. There is no reason to defend the belief that the construction of large dams protects villages and floodplain forests from flooding waters. Another threat to willow-poplar forests is the penetration
of alien species, which quickly become dominant and suppress the indigenous
species.
The hard wood from oak and elm is highly valued by
foresters. The decline of the water table, due to drainage, influenced
the succession from a willow-poplar composition to a oak-elm-ash composition.
This is the reason why it is not as rare as the willow-poplar forest composition.
The second group of willow shrub wetlands we can find
near old water reservoirs, previous river meanders and basins, and oxbow
lakes that are gradually overgrown. These localities are influenced by
high levels of underground water or by stagnant surface water. Their development
often leads to peat bogs. Willow shrubs are very important in the process
of stabilizing soils in association with young river sediments. They enhance
sedimentation and prevent soil erosion. Willow shrub communities are also
threatened by river regulation activities.
The dwarf pine bog is a very rare type of wetland. They can seldom be found in the High Tatra Mountains and the upper Orava where the most beautiful and best developed Slovak fens occur. Dwarf pines (Pinus mugo and rarely Pinus rotundata) grow on fens which have reached a special stage in evolution. The specific condition is a decline in moisture in the upper bog layer which results in the peat drying out, dying and oxidizing. Due to an extraordinarily low distribution range, their conservation is important to secure and preserve a high species richness in Slovakia.
Communities with tall sedges are usually located close to rivers, streams, oxbow lakes and depressions. These areas contain a high ground water level and often are flooded by surface water. They have an important role in the succession and overgrowth of pools and other depressions. In Slovakia there are more than 80 species from the genus Carex (sedge) and more than half of them are associated with habitats which are influenced by a high ground water level. Tall sedge communities are endangered by irrigation and impacts to the water regime of rivers and wetlands. Years ago our country was covered by forests. Many of todays wet meadows and pastures originated as a result of human activities. From the lowlands up to the mountains, our ancestors had cut down large swaths of trees, which transformed these once forested areas into meadows and pastures. Today, they are located mainly in lowland areas. The most important factors influencing the life of wet meadows are floods, the level of groundwater and the frequency of mowing. The height above sea level is another factor influencing the distribution of vegetation and animal species. While grasses prevail in lowlands, the ratio of grasses and herbs is equal in the middle zone. The tall-herbs are typically found in the mountain and submontane zones. At first sight, these meadows do not seem to change in appearance, but after a dry summer, flower species predominate over grass. Biodiversity is also influenced by various rodents and ants, whose activities uncover the lower soil parts containing competitively weaker seeds, thus giving an opportunity for other species to develop. That is why the activities of ants and rodents are important, and they contribute to the biodiversity of meadows. It is probably not a well known fact that wet meadows are also perfect "water treatment plants." During a successful year the production of biomes exceeds 10 tons per hectare. For example, when farmers collect hay from 1 km2 of wetlands, they will also gain about 20 tons of nitrogen and 2 tons of phosphorous, all brought by polluted water. In the past, wet meadows used to be dried out and ploughed in lowlands. In the mountain zone, wet meadows were destroyed by intensive grazing. Restoring wet meadows and re-introducing original vegetation species is not an easy task. Farmers have tried doing so with a mixture of hybrid grass and clover; however, these species are not originally found in wetlands, so they did not survive. The meadows deteriorated as these weaker species were quickly replaced by weeds. They are the highest located wetlands in Slovakia. We can find them in the Tatra mountains in the alpine zone more than 2000 m above sea level. Their lower limit is the forest zone. They can be found near brooks and glacial lakes, below cliffs and in areas where snow remains for a long period during the year. Thanks to the quite big plants with the big leaves you can not miss these wetlands when you are hiking. These plants are a source of food for chamoix, marmots and others animals. Tall-herb wetlands contain a rich diversity of plant and animal species. Tall-herb wetlands are threatened by high soil erosion, which occurs mainly during the strong summer rain storms. If you have been in the mountains during one of these storms you know how much water is running down to the valleys. Its strength can even move very heavy rocks. Tall-herb wetlands are first facing this rush of water, slowing it down and protecting the banks of brooks against erosion. In the past, tall-herb wetlands were threatened mainly by overgrazing. Presently they are at risk from heavy tourism and water pollution caused by human civilization. Despite these facts, these wetlands are in relatively good condition, because many of them are located within the boundaries of protected areas. Reed swamps are one of the most striking plant communities, but they are very poor in species diversity. The reed (Phragmites australis) is such a competitive plant that it creates almost a monoculture. Its root system is very dense and other plant roots can not survive. They live in the overgrown vegetation of river branches, depressions with a high level of ground water, and very often on the banks of dams. They are mainly in the lowland areas, but it is possible to see them up to the montane zone. Reed has the ability to spread very easily to places like dams, banks of rivers and ponds. It is very benevolent to the changes in the level of ground water, so it is attracted to artificial habitat made by humans such as: ditches near roads and railroad tracks. In the last two cases they are not considered to be part of a wetland system. Plants fully adapted for life in water are called hydrophytes. Their growth in the water fluctuates during the year and they can exist at a maximum depth of 2 meters. They can tolerate changes of light, nutrients and hydrological conditions. We can find them in stagnant or slow-flowing waters such as depressions, oxbow lakes, shallow lakes, slow-flowing brooks, canals and artificial ditches or pits. The poorest water plant communities contain species that are free floating and not rooted to the bottom surface. The other water plant group is composed of species that are rooted to the bottom, but their leaves lie on the waters surface. A wax layer found on their leaves enables these plants to withstand strong sunlight. Water plant communities are threatened by regulations, drainage or by the construction of large dams. If a meander is cut off from the main river, it is no longer influenced by the dynamics of the river and gradually becomes overgrown. Eutrophication, a high concentration of nitrogen and
phosphorous, then becomes a danger. Under these conditions there is an
increase of the biomass of some species which displaces less competitive
species. This results in communities with low diversity.
Bog and mire fens are created by an overgrowth of water habitats or saturated shallow depressions which contain an accumulation of dead and decaying plants. This decaying organic material is called peat. Moss plays a key role in the production of peat. Mire fens can be found in Slovakia in the montane and subalpine zones of the Tatra mountains, Orava and Podtatranska basins. Bog fens are also found in the lower parts of Slovakia. Mire fens are an extreme type of peat bog. Typical of mire fens are their very acidic soils that are lacking in minerals and nitrogen. In addition, they are dependent on rain for their water supply. These conditions are not suitable for a majority of plant species and that is why only a limited number of species grow in these areas. Mire fens have a vaulted center in their shape, so the edges have a thiner peat layer than the center. Although similar in the make-up of mire fens, there are distinguishing traits of bog fens: less extreme conditions of habitat, the center of the fen is not vaulted in the middle, it is not dependent only on rainfall and the species composition is more diverse. Live mire fens are typically associated with open areas of surface water. After the soil dry out, bushes and trees begin to grow. However, if these areas cover more than 50% of the fen, then the fen falls under a different category of wetland (dwarf pine, spruce, birch or pine bog). Bog and mire fens are significant monuments of a northern
flora and vegetation type which was transferred here during the glacial
period. Pollen seeds are present in the peat layers. By analyzing them
it is possible to determine which vegetation type was present during a
specific geological period.
Bog and mire fens function as water reservoirs and influence the hydrologic regime. These areas are important for the conservation of species diversity. These systems are fragile and easily disturbed by negative influences. Among the most serious influences are drainage and agriculture as a result of human activities.
Fens are found near rivers and streams across most of Slovakia. Today, they can be found from the submontane to the lower part of the alpine zones in the Tatras, Liptov, Orava, Turiec, Spiš and Pohronie regions. They can be found less often in the lowland regions of Zahorie and Podunajska. These areas contain a high ground water level and the soil lacks carbonates. Sometimes, mainly around travertine areas, fens can be found in association with carbonate soil and diverse vegetation. The natural purification of water in different landscapes is the most important function of fens. In the past, these areas were mown and used for hay. Not being of a high quality, it was more often used as bedding for cattle. These areas were often drained despite the low fertility of the soil. The vast fen areas have disappeared from our country. Today, those which remain are protected by law. It is up to us to protect these fragmented fen habitats which have been here since the last glacial period.
Springs are areas where due to a high level of groundwater, water is coming up from the ground to the surface naturally. Springs are located between 400-2000 m in elevation. Water from springs is oxidised and has a relatively stable temperature. In association with the type of substrate present, we can distinguish two types of springs. The first is characterize by lime. Lime is calcium oxide and appears as a white substance near these springs. This enriched water creates an alkali environment in the soil and good living conditions for rare vegetation species requiring base substrates. These springs are mostly covered by moss vegetation which can be stabilized by calcium carbonate on the surface. The second type is characterised by minerals other than lime. Because this water contains less minerals the soil is acidic to neutral. A result of this is a less diverse composition of vegetation. Moss is less frequent in these types of springs. Springs as sources of water participate in the regulation of the water regime, and provide good living conditions for many plant, animal and microorganism species. Many activities threaten springs such as the harvesting
of trees, drainage, and intensive agriculture using pesticides and chemical
fertilizers.
The aim of the Convention is to ensure the protection and sustainable use of wetlands which greatly contribute to biodiversity. Member states are responsible for protection, preparation and implementation of management plans for wetlands in their countries. A special commitment lies in the registration of wetlands into the list of wetlands of international importance, the adoption of special measurements for conservation and to ensure international cooperation. In 1996, this list has included 780 locations which cover 53 million hectares. The Slovak Republic has nominated the following locations: Šúr, Parížske močiare, Čičovské mŕtve rameno a Senné rybníky. In 1993, other extensive wetlands were included in the Morava, Danube and Latorica river floodplains. The wetlands areas of the Orava, Turiec and Ipeľ rivers are now being prepared for nomination. Slovak wetland areas included in the Ramsar Convention cover 25,519 hectares of our country. With the declaration of the Ramsar Convention, people have gained a better understanding of wetlands, their importance for nature and sustainable human living. The results of this convention have been a key tool in the conservation of strategic water sources. One of the conditions of the Ramsar Convention is to complete
an inventory of wetlands in the member countries. Since 1991 the Slovak
Union of Nature and Landscape Protectors has been coordinating the mapping
of Slovak wetlands. The main goal was to categorize wetlands according
to their importance. The result of 5 years of work is about 1900 registered
areas, from which 1379 are categorized as:
The following are wetlands in Slovakia that are considered internationally unique wetlands, wetlands important for biodiversity, containing ecological or hydrological functions. Šúr (Nature reserve) - forest and meadow wetlands. Located between the Danube Lowland and Small Carpathian Mountains. Total area is 83,139 ha. Paris swamps (Nature reserve) - extensive wetland system with reeds and sedges. The Paríž steam is located in the southeast part of the Danube Lowland. This area is an important habitat for nesting and migrating birds and others animals. Total area is 14,059 ha. Číčov oxbow lake (Nature reserve) - Danube oxbow lake which was cut from the main stream by the creation of a dike. This area is a meadow and bush community. The area is dominated by reeds, cat-tales, sedges and water plants. Important habitat for rare plants and animals. Total area is 7,987 ha. Senné ponds (Nature reserve) - A series of ponds built in a previously flooded area of the Okna river in the Eastern Slovakian Lowland. This is one of the most significant areas for nesting and migrating birds in Slovakia. This area consists of wet meadows and pastures around ponds with rare vegetation and animal species. Total area is 21,331 ha. Morava River floodplain area (Protected landscape area of Záhorie) - situated along the Slovak part of the Morava river between the village Brodské and the confluence of the Morava and Danube rivers. This area preserves a unique system of oxbow lakes, wet meadows and floodplain forests which maintain a species-rich community of plants and animals. Total area is 4,971 ha. Danube River floodplain area - area of wetland forests, oxbow lakes and wet meadows. Within this total area of 14, 335 ha are 19 small protected areas. Latorica - A 22
km stretch along the Latorica river in the Protected Landscape Area Latorica.
This area is located in the southern part of the Eastern Slovakian Lowland
and is composed of wetland forests, oxbow lakes and wet meadows. The total
area is 4,358 ha.
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